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May 15 2025

Lifting Stones of Ancient Greece

Dotted across the Peloponnese and the island of Thera are four lifting stones of ancient Greece.

Today, there is no trace of Stonelifting in Greece, but four relics of the athletic past of the Hellenic people tell a story of a strength culture of deep antiquity that once thrived in Hellas.

The four recorded lifting stones of ancient Greece are the oldest known stones with that purpose in the world. While Stonelifting is almost universal and clearly extremely ancient, there are no other stones that we know to have been lifted that are older than the Greek stones.

Luckily for us, the Greeks have always had the inclination to boast of their deeds. It is a cultural heritage that can be found in the heroes of the Iliad vaunting over their defeated adversaries as well as in a cafenion in 21^st century Athens. Each of the extant stones is inscribed with the name of who lifted it and how he did so.

Bybon Stone

While the other three lifting stones of ancient Greece are less well-known, many with an interest in strength culture knows of the Bybon Stone.

The stone was unearthed in the southern part of the Pelopion (shrine of Pelops) in the sacred Altis area of the Olympic sanctuary on the 5th of June 1879. This means that the stone was dedicated at the sanctuary

Now found in the Museum of the History of the Olympic Games in Olympia, Greece, the 143.5 kg (316 lb) sandstone block dates from between the late 7^th to early 6^th century BCE, making it the oldest known lifting stone on the world. It bears the wonderful inscription:

“Bybon, son of Phola, has lifted me over his head with one hand.”

This phrasing has been the cause of much debate over the years with the two grooves like a handle cut into the top of the stone coming into the debate. Was the claim just an exaggerated boast, or did Bybon lift it with one hand, and if so, how? Another complication comes since it can also be translated as “threw me over his head.” This opens the possibility of putting the stone in the manner of the ancient Scots.

It is a mystery that will remain as such, as the museum isn’t going to let anyone try and copy Bybon anytime soon.

Eumastas Stone

The other somewhat known lifting stone of Ancient Greece is the 480 kg (966 lb) Eumastas stone on the island of Thera (Santorini) found in a vineyard wall on the southern foot of Mount Prophet Elias in the late 19th century.

A large round volcanic trachyte boulder, it is contemporary with the Bybon Stone, dating from around the 6^th century BCE. It can be found in the Archaeological Museum of Thera. The stone is spirally inscribed with what could only be described as a hav lift:

“Eumastas, son of Kritobolos, lifted me off the earth.”

This weight is enormous and the stone has no discernible handles, making it an extremely difficult stone to get of the ground for any strength athlete alive today.

While both the Bybon and Eumastas Stones are acknowledged by their relative museums as being lifting stones, the story of the other two stones has required some detective work. I first read about them in H. A. Harris’ 1972 work Sport in Greece and Rome. Harris records the four ancient stones, but is somewhat incredulous, putting forward the theory that they are all hoaxes. Regardless, Harris recorded the inscriptions and the location of them in the old Inscriptiones Graecae volumes published in Germany in Latin in the late 19^th and early 20^th centuries. From these volumes of inscriptions, I was able to find the last recorded location of both of the other stones.

Hermodikos Stone

The ancient sanctuary of Epidauros was the sacred site of the healer god Asklepios. People from across the ancient world would come to the sanctuary to obtain relief from their maladies and afflictions. It was both a sacred site and a hospital with doctors giving treatments on behalf of the god.

At the Archaeological Museum of Epidauros, two stones from the 3^rd century BCE sit either side of the main entrance, along with several others. These two, however, are of particular interest to anyone interested in Stonelifting. The first lists people cured by the god Asklepios. On the list is the following entry:

“Hermodikos of Lampsakos; bodily weakness. The god cured this man as he slept, and ordered him when he came away to carry into the temple the largest stone he could. He carried the stone which now stands in front of the shrine.”

Fortunately, this stone survives too, although the museum list it simple as “a dedication by Hermodikos.” The stone actually reads:

“Hermodikos of Lampsakos. As proof of Thy merit, Asklepios, I dedicated this stone which I lifted myself, plain for all to see, clear evidence of Thy skill; for, before I came into Thy hands and the hands of Thy servants, I lay sick of a foul disease, congestion of the lungs and utter bodily weakness; but Thou, Healer, persuadedst me to pick up this stone and to live completely cured.”

The rectangular block has a dip in the top and is shaped as though it were used as an altar of sorts. It was found in the precinct of the Temple of Asklepios in front of the altar of the god. It weighs 334 kg (674 lb) and could only really be carried as a hug lift, much like some of the Icelandic stones, but it would still be a phenomenal feat of strength.

Throwing Stone of Xenareos

The last stone was the most elusive one to find. Harris had a very brief description of it and stated that it was found in a wall in the Kladeos Valley about two kilometres from Olympia. He stated it weighs around 100 lbs. After a little help from some friends in Olympia, in particular George Tsavaras, I managed to get hold of the inscription details and a drawing of the stone in the 1896 record of inscriptions by Curtius and Adler published in Berlin following the German excavations of that time.

The record stated that it was found in a wall in Koskina on the 13^th of June 1880 and that at some point in its history it had been cut to fit in the wall. The stone, had perhaps been plundered from the Olympic sanctuary and one sat near to the Bybon Stone as a dedicated offering to Zeus or Pelops. After searching all over the museums at Olympia, I could not find the stone. Nobody had ever heard of the stone.

I managed to make my way to the office of Konstantinos Antonopoulos an archaeologist at the Ephorate of Antiquities of Elia who was extremely helpful and suggested that I apply to see the stone, if it was there, in the museum storeroom. A week or so later, I was granted permission and my new friend Konstantinos was there to greet me after my long drive back to Olympia from Athens.

Entering the storeroom, I was taken to the back and there on a shelf was the Throwing Stone of Xenareos. It was put on a table right in front of me. It weighs around 100 lbs, is made of poros limestone and has some visible shells in it. It has been dressed significantly and its original size and shape are impossible to discern. On it is the inscription:

“I am the Throwing Stone of Xenareos.”

Of profound antiquity, it likely at least the same age as the Bybon Stone, as it uses a character called a digamma that fell out of use in Greek before the Classical Period. It is an incredible artifact that unfortunately will remain in the storeroom until enough support can be mustered among the archaeological community of Greece to convince the Ephorate that it should be in display next to the Bybon Stone at the museum.

The lifting stones of ancient Greece are cultural treasures. They remind us not only that strength has been valued since time immemorial, but that when we lift stones we are part of an unbroken line that stretches back in time to our deepest ancestors. We must preserve them and also present them so that future generations can continue to be inspired by the feats of the men whose names are preserved upon them.

Mar 11 2025

Ancient Greek Boxing Dance

Was there an Ancient Greek boxing dance before Pygmakhía fights in antiquity?

Across many cultures, a dance precedes combat. This ritual aspect to fighting is intrinsically linked to the sacrificial nature of boxing. Aside from the well-known Ram Muay of Thailand and the Lethwei Yay of Myanmar, the Iranians engage in a ritual dance before Koshti Gile Mardi wrestling, and the Indians perform a dance of sorts before Kushti wrestling.

Did the Ancient Greeks have the same? The evidence for this possibility comes in the form of a black figure pelike vase from 510 BCE by the Acheloös Painter in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, as well as some literary clues. The most compelling evidence, however, comes from across the Adriatic Sea in what is now Italy, but was once Etruria.

Late Etruscan tombs, dating from 520 – 470 BCE, such as the Tomba Cardarelli, Tomba delle Iscrizioni, and Tomba della Scimmia, feature boxing scenes, with almost identical depictions as seen in Greek art of the period. There is a key difference in many of these scenes, however: the boxers are in poses that are indistinguishablle from dancer depictions in the same tombs (aside from the distinctive hand wraps), and they are always bloodless.

Tombs like Tomba Cardarelli and Tomba della Fustigazione feature boxers in these “dancing” positions either side of an entrance doorway, acting as apotropaic guardians of sorts. Another feature is that the dancing boxers are almost always accompanied by a pipe player. The tibia (Greek aulos) is often associated with processions and games, but the Greeks only played the aulos for the long jump of the pentathlon by the 6^th century BCE.

However, the Greeks noted that the Etruscans played pipes while boxing. Athênaios of Naukratis explicitly mentions this in the 3^rd century CE:

“And Eratosthenes says, in the first book of his Catalogue of the Victors at Olympia, that the Etruscans used to box to the music of the flute.” Athênaios of Naukratis, Deipnosophistaí 4.154a

and

“But the Etruscans (as Alkimos relates) are so far gone in luxury, that they even make bread, and box, and flog people to the sound of the flute.” Athênaios of Naukratis, Deipnosophistaí 12.518b

The Etruscan boxers also performed at Roman Ludi (“Games”) according to Livy:

“The entertainment was furnished by horses and boxers, imported for the most part from Etruria. From that time the Games continued to be a regular annual show, and were called indifferently the Roman and the Great Games.” Livy, History of Rome 1.35

These Ludi included processions in which included dancers and performers with tibia:

“Players who had been brought in from Etruria danced to the strains of the flautist and performed not ungraceful evolutions in the Tuscan fashion” Livy, History of Rome 7.2

Kyle A. Jazwa in his article A Late Archaic Boxing-Dance in Etruria: Identification, Comparison, and Function (De Gruyter, Etruscan Studies 2020; 23(1–2): 29–61), argues that this evidence all points to the existence of an Etruscan boxing-dance.

The Etruscans certainly entered into a cultural exchange with the Greeks and became an important export market for ceramics that the Greeks produced specifically for the Etruscan market. They also, over time, took on many of the trappings of the Greek elite, mimicking the Aristoi in many respects.

This was likely not a one-way cultural exchange, and the Greeks may have taken some things from the Etruscans, a fellow Indo-European people. Did they adopt an Etruscan boxing dance at some point in time, or did they have their own?

The pelike vase is the only clear depiction of what looks like an Ancient Greek boxing dance. In the normal artistic convention for vase painting, both black and red figure, has the two boxers squaring off or fighting, always facing each other, sometimes with blood pouring from one or both fighters. In the 6^th century pelike, the boxers are both facing the same direction and there is an aulos player in the position normally reserved for a judge or trainer. The vase is of Attic origin and was not made for the Etruscan, but for the domestic Greek market. This seems like an outlier.

There is, however, another critical piece of evidence from the 2nd Century CE Greek traveller Pausanías. Pausanías describes a chryselephantine chest in the temple of Hera at Olympia which, among other things, depicts the funeral games of Pelias:

“Those daring to box are Admetos and Mopsos son of Ampyx; a man stands between them playing the flute, just as in our time the practice is to play it in the jumping for the pentathlon.” Pausanías, Description of Greece 5.17.10

This scene stood out to Pausanías, as the aulos was, by the 2^nd century CE, absent from Pygmakhía bouts.

The question remains, was the aulos played in deeper antiquity during the boxing matches of the Greeks, and if so, did the boxers dance before fighting much like their Indo-European cousins and beyond did and do still to this day?

Since the Ancient Greeks had an armed war dance called the Pyrrikhios, which also continues to this day among the Pontic Greeks, it would be almost stranger if there wasn’t an Ancient Greek boxing dance.

Feb 20 2025

Ancient Greek Leg Locks

A pair of lost statues may be the key to learning more about Ancient Greek leg locks in Pankrátion.

One of the tragedies that few talk about following the bombing of Europe in the Second World War is the destruction of countless antiquities from the ancient past that were housed in museums and private collections. Much was lost and some are known to us only through documentation.

Two of these lost pieces, both of which were housed in private collections and were unseen for an extremely long time even before the War, depict Ancient Greek leg locks from Pankrátion. As there is scant surviving evidence of the leg lock game of pankratiasts, the drawings of these two sculptures are invaluable.

The first is recorded by French Benedictine monk Bernard de Montfaucon in his 1719 work L’antiquité expliquée et représentée en figures (Antiquity Explained and Represented in Sculptures). The alabaster statue depicts a fighter on the ground and another above. In his 1722 translation of Montfaucon, David Humphreys puts it thus:

“The engagement was not over upon the fall of one of the Parties, as appears by the two Wrestlers of Alabaster in our cabinet; one of which has given the other a Fall, who tho’ he is down, yet still appears to contend, and gives the other a kick upon the Face with his Foot.”

The passage was written by a monk and translated by a university academic, both of whom had little knowledge of combat sports (although Montfaucon was a soldier before he was a monk). At this time, little was known of Pankrátion and neither appears to know of its existence, as the scene is described as wrestling.

A modern observer will note two things – first the mentioned “up kick” familiar to us through MMA, but also that both of the fighters appear to be fighting for leg locks. We know from other evidence that standing leg locks were performed, but here is a critical piece of the puzzle, showing the grounded fighter collecting the knee.

The second sculpture is recorded in the 1890 edition of Archäologischer Anzeiger, published in Vienna. One of the articles in the annual journal depicts several works held in private collections in Leipzig. A bronze from the collection of Theodor Graf is of extreme interest. The journal has this to say:

“Group of foot fighters. Full casting. Apparently of good workmanship, but very destroyed. Both athletes have their legs crossed in the same position, their hands folded. Perhaps a form of combat in which the hands were not allowed to participate and therefore had to remain clasped together. Could have been jewellery or the handle of an implement, but there is no recognisable point of attachment.” (Translation Tom Billinge 2025)

This small bronze is again described by an academic who has never seen leg locks, as submission wrestling was rare in central Europe. German ganzer ringkampf, which allowed ground fighting was relatively obscure by the late 19^th century, Catch Wrestling had not really taken off in Europe and the Japanese arts had not yet reached the continent. A modern practitioner can easily identify two fighters hunting for a leg lock, both with a gable grip, rather than the more often seen “meandros grip.”

We are fortunate that these two images were recorded, as they provide critical evidence of Ancient Greek leg locks. As the artists were unfamiliar with the techniques, the rendering of the originals to illustration likely is an accurate portrayal as they did not have any other frame of reference to to colour their imagination. These two lost artifacts show us that no matter how sophisticated we believe our modern combat sports to be, there is nothing new under the sun.

Feb 14 2024

How to Make a Taxte-ye Šeno

A taxte-ye šeno, or shena board, is a push up board used in the zurxāne in Iran. It is a critical tool and used more than any other. It is also an incredibly easy and inexpensive piece of equipment to make.

Here is the video on YouTube and the step-by step guide on how to make a taxte-ye šeno is below:

All you will need to make the shena board is thick scrap wood parts of various sizes, nails and basic tools – saw, hammer, sandpaper at a minimum.

The top board is 39 inches long, by 2.5 wide. It should be around 1 inch deep. take some 1 inch thick wood and cut out the length and width you need. Then sand the sharp edges and smooth out the wood with sandpaper.

The feet are trapezoidal. They should be between 1.5 and 2 inches across. The top of the trapezoid is the same width as the board – 2.5 inches – while the bottom should be 5.5 inches across for stable footing. plan out the cuts on the first foot and cut it. Then use the first foot as a template for the second. sand off the edges and make sure the top edge is level so it can be attached to the board.

Now you need to attach the top to the feet of the taxte-ye šeno. You can glue it in place first if you like and drill pilot holes, but the only necessary step is to hammer nails through the top. You can then use a punch to make sure the heads are lower than the wood surface. You could also use screws, but make sure they do not stick out above the top of the board.

Now you have a complete shena board that will serve you well for years to come. you can stain it or paint it, but it can also remain as bare wood.

Dec 08 2023

Zurxāne: House of Strength

The zurxāne, or zurkhaneh, is the Iranian “House of Strength” where men of all ages come together to engage in a powerful physical and spiritual practice.

The zurxāne is where the pahlavānān (athletes) practice the ancient ritual of strength known as varzeš-e pahlavāni (“heroic sport”). Sometimes called varzeš-e bastani (“ancient sport”), the athletes train in physical practices which are geared towards fighting and utilise training tools which emulate weapons of war.

“Almost every traditional neighbourhood has a zurxāne. Found in the back alleys of cities, they are almost invisible from the outside. They have an unassuming, almost unnoticeable exterior. Only a small sign usually announces that it is a zurxāne. The zurxāne has a small door so that everyone who enters, regardless of station in life, must bow and show humility and modesty to enter. Shoes must be removed at the door. A narrow corridor then leads to an expansive domed inner chamber reminiscent of the Mithraic cave of initiation or a Ṣufī lodge.” Tom Billinge, WarYoga Zurxāne

In the centre of the high-domed room is the go’d (“hollow” or “deep”), a sacred sunken pit in which the activities of the house of strength take place. Here the athletes swing perform their exercises and accompanying prayers. They perform šeno push ups and swing mils. They lift sang and sway the kabbadē.

The go’d faces the sardam, an elevated platform which is the seat of the moršed (“master” or “guide”), who plays the drum and bell while chanting poetry by Persian masters like Saʿdī, Ḥāfeẓ, Rūmī, and Ferdowsī.

This holy place is where men are turned into champions, and champions are turned into legends: legends who transcend mundane existence and wage the Greater Holy War against the lesser self.

For a deep look at the zurxāne and its place in Iranian culture, buy the WarYoga Zurxāne book.